Following the ongoing post presidential election crisis in Ivory Coast, West Africa...which currently has two presidents vowing to control the state, I hope and pray that the meeting today Dec 28 with Gbagbo and the three regional leaders from other African states will yield some solutions to the current crisis. Read more about the ongoing crisis.
Ivorians do not want to go back to another civil war. War is just not the solution to our many problems in Africa. Our major problems are the lack of accountability, transparency and reliability in the bureaucrats—which most often times lead to distrust in the government by the people. In any form/system of government, once the people distrust their leader—that nation is likely to fall into serious crisis. This has been the case with many post-war nations in Africa. In general, chronic corruption and the failure of most leaders to run the state justly—that is by reaching its power and economic developments in rural parts of the nation, has been one of the biggest causes of conflicts in Africa.
It makes me sad to see many of our African political leaders, who got their education from the western world, misusing what they have learned by bringing instability to their home countries rather than contributing constructively to help the nation. Is that what universities in the western world taught these leaders who have walked through the walls of great schools in the developed world? I beg to differ. I am currently attending university in the United States—studying Supply Chain and Logistics Tech, but none of my classes, nor the ones in liberal arts, have taught me to go back to my home country and disrupt the peace that many people are enjoying by negatively influencing my brothers and sisters, who are less educated, to fight against the current government in order to gain political power and do nothing for the nation—but to enrich myself and my family.
I think it is time for African leaders and students that are currently studying aboard in developed nations to rethink their role in society as college graduates. It is our educational duties as students and good citizens to contribute to the well being of society—specifically toward humanity. By contributing our time and talents and if possible our treasures, we will to help make the world a peaceful and better place for all.
If our African leaders can only promote education among the growing youth population and foster accountability and transparency in our government, Africa will rise. Our leaders also need to benchmark our economic development policies and capacity building strategies by looking at key players in today’s global economy—China is a good example—rising from being a developing nation to becoming one of the major players in the global economy.
So, why most leaders in Africa are power greed? I have been trying to find an answer to this question. However, I came up with this possible answer... I strongly believe that the answer is post-presidency insecurity due to the way they got in power (military often the case) or their political actions toward the public in general during their term in office... corruption and mismanagement of public funds and natural resources. It is often said that what goes around comes around; therefore, most African leaders, who have tasted power for several years, do not want to step down for fear that people who they have offended during their presidency might go after them.
Overall, Africans need to start thinking ahead. Our leaders need to see what others in the developed world are doing positively and adopt to a best practice strategy to help improve the lives of Africans be it from east to west or from north to south. All African nations need to rally around one another to help develop a vibrant economy, good roads network and transportation systems that enable the free flow of goods and services throughout the continent. This is not a one person or one nation task; it is every African responsibility. Our brothers and sisters in other African nations have suffered and are still suffering today because of some individuals’ selfish political will.
As we enter the New Year, it is time to shine our eyes, look back and think constructively on how best we can improve the well being of all Africans. We have the resources to do this, but we need the right people with God fearing hearts to manage these resources properly by accounting for every dollar received and putting the received revenues into programs that promotes economic developments, prosperity, and education for all people. We need leaders that love the continent not because of its wealth, but because of it people and the continent as a whole.
Some Possible Solutions
How can we move toward economically self-efficient, socially viable and environmentally sustainable society in years to come? African Union, ECOWAS and other trade blocs within Africa and the international community will have to assist in capacity building and economic developments in all African states to ensure the proper management of funds. Regional, religious, tribal and local leaders will all have to work together in all capacities to help create a vibrant economy by assisting the state government with the management of natural resources and public funds. An African Union development fund will also need to be set aside to help strengthen the economy of poorer nations on the continent. Every state will have to contribute somehow, either through human capital, financial capital and natural capital, to this fund in order to benefit from it. A board of trustees consisting of two representatives ( nominated by the president and confirmed by the senate from each state) from all African states should govern the allocation of this fund by ensuring that every dollar spent is accounted for and is approved by majority of the board for the right purpose.
We must also empower current college graduates to contribute what they have learned to help with the economic developments process. These students should be compensated well according to their academic level in order to avoid corruption and other malpractices. We must also encourage students that are studying overseas to come back home and help with the development process. We must also empower our educational institutions by providing all the necessary teaching resources to create first class learning environments in all African states. It is also important to invest in regional research institutions such as medical, technological and transportation, and other studies that will contribute findings to help improve the standard of living of citizens on the continent.
Most importantly, we must also invest in turning our own natural resources into finished goods, which will help to create possibly millions of jobs, rather than solely depending on imported goods or having foreign companies extract our resources and export them overseas. We must invest in clean agriculture technology to grow more food to feed the growing population and the workforce. We must also invest in good road networks and public transportation systems to create easy access for farmers to reach regional and local markets. Also, it is important to focus on major environmental issues such as safe drinking water, good air quality and the conservation of our natural resource for future generation.
Further, we must forgo the mentality that war is the only solution to our problems. For decades, it can clearly be stated that war has not taken us anywhere. It has led to millions of deaths, poor living conditions, hundreds of children undernourished and malnourished and increased dependent on foreign aid. Africans, this is the time for us to rise. Let’s say NO to WAR in every region, town and village. Also, let us learn to manage our own conflict without international intervention (they should be the last result), if one arises, from the onset before it becomes a major one.
Finally,I do understand that it is not easy to just come together as one people to achieve these above mentioned goals taking into consideration the size of our continent, the hundreds of different tribal languages and traditional practices, but it is the time now to start working toward it. Nothing comes easy—it takes people, hard work and self dedication and unity to achieve a common goal. If Europe with all its post internal conflicts or the United States with all it post civil conflicts can unite as one people today regardless of their political differences and heritage, we too can come together to rebuild our continent and unite as one people. We must all learn to compromise our tribal, religious and political differences for the sake of peace and the love of our people, the nation and the continent.
Tuesday, December 28, 2010
Monday, December 6, 2010
An Analysis on Confucius and the Analects
“Always keep in mind the age of your parents. Let this thought be both your joy and your worry,” writes Confucius, explaining to his disciple the responsibility of one’s relationship and dedication to parents (Analects 4:21). Confucius was a well respected and influential person in Chinese history. His parents died when he was a child, and he experienced severe hardships as an orphan during his childhood. As a result of the hardships he underwent, he started working at a much earlier age as an accountant and a livestock caretaker to support himself. He was a native son of duchy Lu, known today as Shandong Province, China (“Confucius” Current Event). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Confucius cites that Confucius, being self-motivated and passionate about learning, taught himself in music and ancient history. He started teaching a group of disciples at age 20, and at 50 he became involved in politics. He served during the Duke Ding regime as Minister of Public Work and later Minister of Crime. However, he served a short term as a Minister of Crime and was forced into exile due to some political conflict between him and other government officials. His teachings are referred to today as Confucianism, which centers on the teaching that people should treat others with respect—Confucius’s golden rule—and they must not only better themselves, but also work to enrich the lives of others around them (“Confucius” The Stanford). Despite all the struggles that Confucius underwent during his early childhood, he devoted the remainder of his life teaching the moral and the social philosophical ideas of love, peace, wisdom and respect.
The “Analects,” which contains his teachings, conversations and exchanges with his disciples, was compiled by several generations of his students. It contains his teachings on subjects such as government, personal conduct, warfare, family values and the spirit. The original text was first translated into Latin and published in Paris in 1687, under the title “Confucius Sinarum Philosophus” (Spencer 1). Confucius’s teachings in the “Analects,” such as his emphasis on respecting and obeying parents and elders and education and study, are significant in understanding his ideology or philosophy.
Devotion to parents is one of the major hallmarks of Confucius’ teaching that is outlined in the “Analects.” He regards respect to parents and other family members as the most basic form of promoting the interest of others before one’s self interest. According to Confucius, “A man who respects his parents and his elderly would hardly be inclined to defy his superior” (Analects 1.2). Confucius also believed that parents and elderly persons are wiser and more experienced; therefore, having respect for them is the “root of humanity” (Analects 1.2). The phrase “root of humanity” possibly implies that being respectful to parents and elders forms the foundation of treating others with respect and love and self-discipline. This root of humanity starts from home because if one treats his or her parents and older siblings at home with respect, he or she will treat others the same way. The root of humanity also forms the basics of living in peace and harmony because respect brings love, which fosters peace.
Confucius also stressed the importance of family values with respect to obeying parents. For instance, when one of his disciples asked him about filial piety, which relates to family values, Confucius responded by saying, “Never disobey,” meaning be a servant to your parents; do whatever they tell you to do. He went on to say that “when your parents are alive, serve them according to the ritual” (Analects 2.5). The ritual he is referring to is Li, which is the ritual forms and rules of prosperity through which one expresses respect for parents and the elderly and behave accordingly so that his role in society is worthy of respect and admiration. The Stanford Encyclopedia on Confucius argued a similar point toward serving parents, that being submissive does not mean subjecting oneself to ritual; rather it gives one the ability to learn “how to reconcile one’s own desires with the needs of one’s family and community” (“Confucius,” The Stanford). Being humble does not mean being subject to others, but it shows that one is disciplined and respectful. Confucius mentioned that filial piety is about attitude, and he stressed that an individual, especially youths, should always offer to help when there is work (Analects 2.8). Being respectful and obedient to parents and elders brings prosperity and joy because it is the basis of how one would treat others around in a society.
Education and study are also other major hallmarks of Confucius’ teachings. He disagrees with those who believe in intuition and holds that the understanding of subjects originates from long and careful study. According to Confucius, “a gentleman enlarges his learning through literature” (Analects 6:27). This is to say the more one reads, the broader his knowledge becomes. He also emphasizes the effectiveness and characteristics of a good teacher. For Confucius, a good teacher is one who studies the past to make informed decision about the future (Analects 2.11). He sees study as thinking critically and finding a right teacher and following his or her footsteps. Confucius believes that “studying without thinking is futile” (Analects 2.15). He defines knowledge as taking “…what you know for what you know, and what you do not know for what you do not know” (Analects 2:17). This statement implies that one must critically explore beyond the mere understanding of something that one has a little knowledge about in order to get a better understanding.
Robin Wittermore, author of the article “To Know is to Act Knowledge,” argued that acting knowledge requires dedication, being creative, detail oriented and intellectually inclined (Wittermore 1). To act knowledge is to practically demonstrate with integrity and enthusiasm what one has studied. Confucius would possibly agree with Wittermore too because he himself made it clear that he only teaches those who are willing to learn and individuals should practice what they preach. “I only enlighten the enthusiastic; I guide only the fervent,” Confucius writes (Analects 7.8). The Phrase “I only enlighten the enthusiastic” implies that Confucius was an instructor who was willing to teach anyone that was ambitious to learn. He also made it clear that he only “guided” those that are passionate and serious about learning.
Confucius' teaching is important to the social orders of a society. His teachings, such as filial piety and the significance of education, create an ideal moral society that fosters love, peace and harmony, respect, obedience and a learning community that promotes disciplined scholars. His philosophy or ideology creates a gentleman that demonstrates integrity, respect for humanity and family values. Some of his ideologies, such as filial piety, are still relevant in some parts of the world. Even though all of Confucius' teachings might not be relevant today in modern society, putting to practice some of his major teachings such as respecting and obeying parents and treating others with love and respect and promoting education foster an ideal society.
Work Cited
“Confucius.” Current Events, a Weekly Reader Publication. 29 Sept 2006: SS2. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Web. 4 Oct. 2010
“Confucius.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 5 Sept. 2006. Web.5 Oct. 2010
Page duBois et al. “The Analects.” The Longman Anthology of World Literature. Editors David Damrosch and David L. Pike. New York: Pearson Publication 2009.1046-1050. Print.
Spence, Jonathan. "What Confucius Said." The New York Review of Books (1997): 10-13. Rpt. in Literature Resource Center. Detroit: Gale, 2010. Literature Resource Center. Web. 5 Nov. 2010.
Wittermore, Robin. “To Know Is To Act Knowledge (2.17).” Journal of Nursing Scholarship 31.4 (1999): 365. Health Reference Center Academic. Web. 4 Oct. 2010.
The “Analects,” which contains his teachings, conversations and exchanges with his disciples, was compiled by several generations of his students. It contains his teachings on subjects such as government, personal conduct, warfare, family values and the spirit. The original text was first translated into Latin and published in Paris in 1687, under the title “Confucius Sinarum Philosophus” (Spencer 1). Confucius’s teachings in the “Analects,” such as his emphasis on respecting and obeying parents and elders and education and study, are significant in understanding his ideology or philosophy.
Devotion to parents is one of the major hallmarks of Confucius’ teaching that is outlined in the “Analects.” He regards respect to parents and other family members as the most basic form of promoting the interest of others before one’s self interest. According to Confucius, “A man who respects his parents and his elderly would hardly be inclined to defy his superior” (Analects 1.2). Confucius also believed that parents and elderly persons are wiser and more experienced; therefore, having respect for them is the “root of humanity” (Analects 1.2). The phrase “root of humanity” possibly implies that being respectful to parents and elders forms the foundation of treating others with respect and love and self-discipline. This root of humanity starts from home because if one treats his or her parents and older siblings at home with respect, he or she will treat others the same way. The root of humanity also forms the basics of living in peace and harmony because respect brings love, which fosters peace.
Confucius also stressed the importance of family values with respect to obeying parents. For instance, when one of his disciples asked him about filial piety, which relates to family values, Confucius responded by saying, “Never disobey,” meaning be a servant to your parents; do whatever they tell you to do. He went on to say that “when your parents are alive, serve them according to the ritual” (Analects 2.5). The ritual he is referring to is Li, which is the ritual forms and rules of prosperity through which one expresses respect for parents and the elderly and behave accordingly so that his role in society is worthy of respect and admiration. The Stanford Encyclopedia on Confucius argued a similar point toward serving parents, that being submissive does not mean subjecting oneself to ritual; rather it gives one the ability to learn “how to reconcile one’s own desires with the needs of one’s family and community” (“Confucius,” The Stanford). Being humble does not mean being subject to others, but it shows that one is disciplined and respectful. Confucius mentioned that filial piety is about attitude, and he stressed that an individual, especially youths, should always offer to help when there is work (Analects 2.8). Being respectful and obedient to parents and elders brings prosperity and joy because it is the basis of how one would treat others around in a society.
Education and study are also other major hallmarks of Confucius’ teachings. He disagrees with those who believe in intuition and holds that the understanding of subjects originates from long and careful study. According to Confucius, “a gentleman enlarges his learning through literature” (Analects 6:27). This is to say the more one reads, the broader his knowledge becomes. He also emphasizes the effectiveness and characteristics of a good teacher. For Confucius, a good teacher is one who studies the past to make informed decision about the future (Analects 2.11). He sees study as thinking critically and finding a right teacher and following his or her footsteps. Confucius believes that “studying without thinking is futile” (Analects 2.15). He defines knowledge as taking “…what you know for what you know, and what you do not know for what you do not know” (Analects 2:17). This statement implies that one must critically explore beyond the mere understanding of something that one has a little knowledge about in order to get a better understanding.
Robin Wittermore, author of the article “To Know is to Act Knowledge,” argued that acting knowledge requires dedication, being creative, detail oriented and intellectually inclined (Wittermore 1). To act knowledge is to practically demonstrate with integrity and enthusiasm what one has studied. Confucius would possibly agree with Wittermore too because he himself made it clear that he only teaches those who are willing to learn and individuals should practice what they preach. “I only enlighten the enthusiastic; I guide only the fervent,” Confucius writes (Analects 7.8). The Phrase “I only enlighten the enthusiastic” implies that Confucius was an instructor who was willing to teach anyone that was ambitious to learn. He also made it clear that he only “guided” those that are passionate and serious about learning.
Confucius' teaching is important to the social orders of a society. His teachings, such as filial piety and the significance of education, create an ideal moral society that fosters love, peace and harmony, respect, obedience and a learning community that promotes disciplined scholars. His philosophy or ideology creates a gentleman that demonstrates integrity, respect for humanity and family values. Some of his ideologies, such as filial piety, are still relevant in some parts of the world. Even though all of Confucius' teachings might not be relevant today in modern society, putting to practice some of his major teachings such as respecting and obeying parents and treating others with love and respect and promoting education foster an ideal society.
Work Cited
“Confucius.” Current Events, a Weekly Reader Publication. 29 Sept 2006: SS2. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Web. 4 Oct. 2010
“Confucius.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 5 Sept. 2006. Web.5 Oct. 2010
Page duBois et al. “The Analects.” The Longman Anthology of World Literature. Editors David Damrosch and David L. Pike. New York: Pearson Publication 2009.1046-1050. Print.
Spence, Jonathan. "What Confucius Said." The New York Review of Books (1997): 10-13. Rpt. in Literature Resource Center. Detroit: Gale, 2010. Literature Resource Center. Web. 5 Nov. 2010.
Wittermore, Robin. “To Know Is To Act Knowledge (2.17).” Journal of Nursing Scholarship 31.4 (1999): 365. Health Reference Center Academic. Web. 4 Oct. 2010.
Friday, October 22, 2010
The Impact of Smallpox Epidemics on the Native Americans and the Continental Army
Smallpox, which is still considered today by many historians and other medical practitioners as one of the world’s worst diseases ever in the history of mankind, killed approximately 30 percent of the Native American population on the
northwest coast of North America. The devastating consequence,
according to Robert Boyd, author of the book "The Coming of the Spirit
of Pestilence" was as a result of the first Native Americans’ direct
European contact. Boyed went on to say this incident was the “most
virulent of the deadly European diseases that swept over the region
during next 800 to 100 years” (Boyd 22-295). It is reported by some
historians that Europeans brought smallpox and other diseases to North
America during the early Columbian Exchange. Smallpox is a communicable
virus that travels from one infected individual to an unlucky victim
through close contact. A single infected individual within a gathering
can spread the virus among many that do not have an acquired immune
system to resist the virus. It is caused by a virus called Variola
major, closely related to monkey pox and cowpox. One who is affected by
smallpox sometimes experiences fever up to 105ºF, back pain as well as
influenza-like symptoms and vomiting. After three days, the fever
reduces and the rash starts to develop on the face, forearm, the hands
and other parts of the body. The infected individual will die or
survive; however, the possibility of surviving from this deadly disease
at the time was slim due to the lack of proper medication (Halverson
1-5). The lack of strong immune system and advanced medication to
prevent the virus during the great smallpox epidemic of 1775 and 1782,
led to the massive death of Native Americans and the Continental Army.
Native Americans were more susceptible to smallpox than the European
traders, who had brought the virus and other diseases such as measles
and other diseases on the North American Continent—historically
referred to as the New World. The natives had no acquired immune system
to resist the virus and as a result everyone was susceptible to it.
Because the virus needed a constant supply of unlucky victims to
survive, the natives consolidated lifestyle—commune living, or living
together as one family sharing food, water, clothing and other basic
life necessities, made it suitable for the virus to rapidly affect many
families and their friends. According to Elizabeth A. Fenn, author of
the book Pox Americana, smallpox eradicated over one hundred thousand
Native Americans. She maintains that each outbreak within a community
killed nearly half of the inhabitants and left others severely sick
(Fenn 13-43). For instance, an English fur trader, who spotted two
smallpox victims while entering through a harbor near Sitka, Alaska,
wrote “[He] observed the oldest of the men to be very much marked with
the small-pox, as was a girl who appeared to be about fourteen years
old. He further went on to say “The old man…told [him] that the
distemper carried off great numbers of the inhabitants, and that he
himself had lost ten children by it…”(Boyd 23-24). Native Americans
were naive about the virus. They had never encountered smallpox and as
a result, they had no knowledge on how to prevent the disease. The
effects of smallpox were outrageous. The Vancouver Expedition team, one
of the first European explorers, saw how people were badly affected by
the disease. Commander George Vancouver, one of the expedition team
members, saw one man who had suffered from smallpox and others who had
lost left eye sights from the disease, wrote “this deplorable disease
is not only common, but it is greatly to be apprehended is very fatal
amongst them, as its indelible marks were seen on many; and several had
lost the sight of one eye, which was remarked to be generally the left,
owing most likely to the virulent effects of this baneful disorder”
(Vancouver, Vol.2, p. 241-242). Europeans, however, had an acquired
immune system to resist the virus because they had been exposed to the
virus over a long period of time. Further, the lack of advanced
medication also plays a major role in the death of many Native
Americans. When an outbreak of the virus occurred, advanced medical
laboratories did not exist, like today, in any part North America to
produce vaccine that would have helped save the lives of thousands and
more Native Americans that were killed by the smallpox epidemic. In the
1770s, according to historian Robert Boyd, smallpox epidemics killed
more than 11,000 western Washington Indians, reducing the population
from about 37000 to 26000 (Boyd 22-295). Traditional native treatments
also worsen the mortality rates. For instance, Native Americans used
traditional native treatments, such as Sweet-lodges, which worsened
smallpox, to cure infected victims (Melissa 2). The lack of proper
medication and an acquired immune system made the natives more
susceptible to smallpox than the European.
The Continental Army was also greatly affected by smallpox throughout
the American Revolutionary war against the British. Acting as a
formidable force against the army, smallpox killed thousands of
soldiers and left many severely sick during the war. Military groupings
or encampments were gateways for smallpox to find its way through what
biologists called “virgin souls.” According to Fenn, smallpox started
its ravaging during the early start of the war---specifically during
the various sieges when people came in close contact with one another
seeking to find food, water, and other basic life necessities. Fenn
stated that the virus consistently and severely affected the American
troops throughout because they had soldiers that were more susceptible
to the virus than the British-born soldiers, who had been exposed to
the virus for centuries. General George Washington’s first year as a
commander in chief was chaotic for his men. Smallpox made landfall in
every camp that the troops resided in to await deployment and it even
attacked soldiers that were on the battlefield. At the Boston siege,
several hundred men were killed and others weakened before the British
attack. At some point, according to Fenn, smallpox killed most of the
soldiers, forcing the remaining sick men on the battlefield to retreat
leaving behind ammunition and other belongings. The high death rate
caused by smallpox became a major obstacle to the Continental troops’
success. In one of the battles before the arrival of General John
Thomas with more Continental reinforcement, smallpox had dropped the
army by six hundred men, leaving behind nineteen hundred, of which,
according to Fenn, nine hundred were sick including General Thomas
himself (Fenn 13-277). The devastating effect of smallpox on the
Continental troops was possibly due to unvaccinated men. Under George
Washington at the beginning of the war, he prohibited the practice of
inoculation for his men fearing that such process would weaken his
men—making them unready for combat. However, at one point, when
smallpox nearly killed all his men on the camp, he ordered that all of
them go through the inoculation process in order to reduce the
mortality rate and overcome the British. In his statement to inoculate
the troops when there was a smallpox outbreak on one of the camps on
January 1776, Washington wrote “We should have more to dread from
smallpox, than the sword of the enemy--- the time has come to inoculate
the troops” (Fenn 82). Although the Continental Army was severely
affected by the virus, some of the British new recruits were also
affected from the disease, but not to the extent that it affected the
Continental Army. New recruits, who were mainly blacks, in the British
Army were more susceptible to smallpox than the British-born soldiers.
However, smallpox was not a major obstacle for the British army,
possibly because the majority of the British troops—the main fighting
line, who were British born soldiers, had been exposed to the virus at
a younger age. Another significant reason the British troops were not
severely affected by smallpox, as opposed to the Continental troops,
was that inoculation was a mandatory requirement to join the main
British fighting line. Smallpox became an ally for the British troop
killing at least 50 to 100 Continental soldiers and leaving others
powerless before the actual combat. The Continental Army consisted of
many black soldiers that were more susceptible to smallpox. The British
also had black soldiers, but they were not included in the main
fighting line. Another possible reason why the Continental Army was
more susceptible to smallpox was the lack of good drinking water, food
and clothing and the winter season. For instance, the freezing winter
season might have also undermined the prevention process (Fenn 14-277).
To help reduce the mortality rates and prevent the virus among
inhabitants and returning combat soldiers, a controlling process was
put in place. Controlling smallpox posed a major task for the
Continental army. Some of the soldiers opposed the idea and others were
willing to go through the inoculation process. Although it was a
difficult task to inoculate the entire army, the process did go well
for Washington and the Continental soldiers. Fenn reported that the
Continental Army won their first battle right after the inoculation
took place. However, some of the soldiers had to pay for extra care due
to the lack of limited supply and resource. The popular demand for
inoculation within the military at that time triggered most of the
colonies to inoculate their inhabitants. Boston and Philadelphia
embraced the practice for its inhabitants to help prevent the
epidemics. However, only the rich in Philadelphia could afford the high
cost of inoculation. The needy, especially young children and older
adults had higher mortality rate due to low income. Through goodwill,
Benjamin Franklin and some of his friends founded a non-profit clinic
and helped the needy, young children and elderly adults to receive free
inoculation. The impact of smallpox on both troops and the Native
Americans was devastating. Many Native Americans, nearly half of the
population at the time, and Continental soldiers died from this disease
because of the lack of strong immune system to resist the deadly virus.
Some Native Americans lost their eye sight, mainly the left eye
according to the explorers, and likewise many of the soldiers were
unable to fight due to illness. The devastating effects of the smallpox
epidemic ruin many lives and it is still considered today as the worst
viruses in the history of mankind. Work Cited
Fenn, Elizabeth A. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of
1775-82. New York: Hill and Wnag, 2001. Print.
Halverson, Sue Melissa. “Native American Belief and Medical Treatments
During the Smallpox Epidemics: an Evolution. The Early America Review
online publication: 2007. p. 5-1.
Robert Boyd. “The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence.” Vancouver; BC:
Press, 1999. p. 295-22.
“Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest Coast of
North America in the 1770s.” History Linked.org: 30 April 2010.
Vancouver, George. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific and Round
the World… Vol. 2 London: G. and J. Robinson, 1798, p. 242-229.
northwest coast of North America. The devastating consequence,
according to Robert Boyd, author of the book "The Coming of the Spirit
of Pestilence" was as a result of the first Native Americans’ direct
European contact. Boyed went on to say this incident was the “most
virulent of the deadly European diseases that swept over the region
during next 800 to 100 years” (Boyd 22-295). It is reported by some
historians that Europeans brought smallpox and other diseases to North
America during the early Columbian Exchange. Smallpox is a communicable
virus that travels from one infected individual to an unlucky victim
through close contact. A single infected individual within a gathering
can spread the virus among many that do not have an acquired immune
system to resist the virus. It is caused by a virus called Variola
major, closely related to monkey pox and cowpox. One who is affected by
smallpox sometimes experiences fever up to 105ºF, back pain as well as
influenza-like symptoms and vomiting. After three days, the fever
reduces and the rash starts to develop on the face, forearm, the hands
and other parts of the body. The infected individual will die or
survive; however, the possibility of surviving from this deadly disease
at the time was slim due to the lack of proper medication (Halverson
1-5). The lack of strong immune system and advanced medication to
prevent the virus during the great smallpox epidemic of 1775 and 1782,
led to the massive death of Native Americans and the Continental Army.
Native Americans were more susceptible to smallpox than the European
traders, who had brought the virus and other diseases such as measles
and other diseases on the North American Continent—historically
referred to as the New World. The natives had no acquired immune system
to resist the virus and as a result everyone was susceptible to it.
Because the virus needed a constant supply of unlucky victims to
survive, the natives consolidated lifestyle—commune living, or living
together as one family sharing food, water, clothing and other basic
life necessities, made it suitable for the virus to rapidly affect many
families and their friends. According to Elizabeth A. Fenn, author of
the book Pox Americana, smallpox eradicated over one hundred thousand
Native Americans. She maintains that each outbreak within a community
killed nearly half of the inhabitants and left others severely sick
(Fenn 13-43). For instance, an English fur trader, who spotted two
smallpox victims while entering through a harbor near Sitka, Alaska,
wrote “[He] observed the oldest of the men to be very much marked with
the small-pox, as was a girl who appeared to be about fourteen years
old. He further went on to say “The old man…told [him] that the
distemper carried off great numbers of the inhabitants, and that he
himself had lost ten children by it…”(Boyd 23-24). Native Americans
were naive about the virus. They had never encountered smallpox and as
a result, they had no knowledge on how to prevent the disease. The
effects of smallpox were outrageous. The Vancouver Expedition team, one
of the first European explorers, saw how people were badly affected by
the disease. Commander George Vancouver, one of the expedition team
members, saw one man who had suffered from smallpox and others who had
lost left eye sights from the disease, wrote “this deplorable disease
is not only common, but it is greatly to be apprehended is very fatal
amongst them, as its indelible marks were seen on many; and several had
lost the sight of one eye, which was remarked to be generally the left,
owing most likely to the virulent effects of this baneful disorder”
(Vancouver, Vol.2, p. 241-242). Europeans, however, had an acquired
immune system to resist the virus because they had been exposed to the
virus over a long period of time. Further, the lack of advanced
medication also plays a major role in the death of many Native
Americans. When an outbreak of the virus occurred, advanced medical
laboratories did not exist, like today, in any part North America to
produce vaccine that would have helped save the lives of thousands and
more Native Americans that were killed by the smallpox epidemic. In the
1770s, according to historian Robert Boyd, smallpox epidemics killed
more than 11,000 western Washington Indians, reducing the population
from about 37000 to 26000 (Boyd 22-295). Traditional native treatments
also worsen the mortality rates. For instance, Native Americans used
traditional native treatments, such as Sweet-lodges, which worsened
smallpox, to cure infected victims (Melissa 2). The lack of proper
medication and an acquired immune system made the natives more
susceptible to smallpox than the European.
The Continental Army was also greatly affected by smallpox throughout
the American Revolutionary war against the British. Acting as a
formidable force against the army, smallpox killed thousands of
soldiers and left many severely sick during the war. Military groupings
or encampments were gateways for smallpox to find its way through what
biologists called “virgin souls.” According to Fenn, smallpox started
its ravaging during the early start of the war---specifically during
the various sieges when people came in close contact with one another
seeking to find food, water, and other basic life necessities. Fenn
stated that the virus consistently and severely affected the American
troops throughout because they had soldiers that were more susceptible
to the virus than the British-born soldiers, who had been exposed to
the virus for centuries. General George Washington’s first year as a
commander in chief was chaotic for his men. Smallpox made landfall in
every camp that the troops resided in to await deployment and it even
attacked soldiers that were on the battlefield. At the Boston siege,
several hundred men were killed and others weakened before the British
attack. At some point, according to Fenn, smallpox killed most of the
soldiers, forcing the remaining sick men on the battlefield to retreat
leaving behind ammunition and other belongings. The high death rate
caused by smallpox became a major obstacle to the Continental troops’
success. In one of the battles before the arrival of General John
Thomas with more Continental reinforcement, smallpox had dropped the
army by six hundred men, leaving behind nineteen hundred, of which,
according to Fenn, nine hundred were sick including General Thomas
himself (Fenn 13-277). The devastating effect of smallpox on the
Continental troops was possibly due to unvaccinated men. Under George
Washington at the beginning of the war, he prohibited the practice of
inoculation for his men fearing that such process would weaken his
men—making them unready for combat. However, at one point, when
smallpox nearly killed all his men on the camp, he ordered that all of
them go through the inoculation process in order to reduce the
mortality rate and overcome the British. In his statement to inoculate
the troops when there was a smallpox outbreak on one of the camps on
January 1776, Washington wrote “We should have more to dread from
smallpox, than the sword of the enemy--- the time has come to inoculate
the troops” (Fenn 82). Although the Continental Army was severely
affected by the virus, some of the British new recruits were also
affected from the disease, but not to the extent that it affected the
Continental Army. New recruits, who were mainly blacks, in the British
Army were more susceptible to smallpox than the British-born soldiers.
However, smallpox was not a major obstacle for the British army,
possibly because the majority of the British troops—the main fighting
line, who were British born soldiers, had been exposed to the virus at
a younger age. Another significant reason the British troops were not
severely affected by smallpox, as opposed to the Continental troops,
was that inoculation was a mandatory requirement to join the main
British fighting line. Smallpox became an ally for the British troop
killing at least 50 to 100 Continental soldiers and leaving others
powerless before the actual combat. The Continental Army consisted of
many black soldiers that were more susceptible to smallpox. The British
also had black soldiers, but they were not included in the main
fighting line. Another possible reason why the Continental Army was
more susceptible to smallpox was the lack of good drinking water, food
and clothing and the winter season. For instance, the freezing winter
season might have also undermined the prevention process (Fenn 14-277).
To help reduce the mortality rates and prevent the virus among
inhabitants and returning combat soldiers, a controlling process was
put in place. Controlling smallpox posed a major task for the
Continental army. Some of the soldiers opposed the idea and others were
willing to go through the inoculation process. Although it was a
difficult task to inoculate the entire army, the process did go well
for Washington and the Continental soldiers. Fenn reported that the
Continental Army won their first battle right after the inoculation
took place. However, some of the soldiers had to pay for extra care due
to the lack of limited supply and resource. The popular demand for
inoculation within the military at that time triggered most of the
colonies to inoculate their inhabitants. Boston and Philadelphia
embraced the practice for its inhabitants to help prevent the
epidemics. However, only the rich in Philadelphia could afford the high
cost of inoculation. The needy, especially young children and older
adults had higher mortality rate due to low income. Through goodwill,
Benjamin Franklin and some of his friends founded a non-profit clinic
and helped the needy, young children and elderly adults to receive free
inoculation. The impact of smallpox on both troops and the Native
Americans was devastating. Many Native Americans, nearly half of the
population at the time, and Continental soldiers died from this disease
because of the lack of strong immune system to resist the deadly virus.
Some Native Americans lost their eye sight, mainly the left eye
according to the explorers, and likewise many of the soldiers were
unable to fight due to illness. The devastating effects of the smallpox
epidemic ruin many lives and it is still considered today as the worst
viruses in the history of mankind. Work Cited
Fenn, Elizabeth A. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of
1775-82. New York: Hill and Wnag, 2001. Print.
Halverson, Sue Melissa. “Native American Belief and Medical Treatments
During the Smallpox Epidemics: an Evolution. The Early America Review
online publication: 2007. p. 5-1.
Robert Boyd. “The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence.” Vancouver; BC:
Press, 1999. p. 295-22.
“Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest Coast of
North America in the 1770s.” History Linked.org: 30 April 2010.
Vancouver, George. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific and Round
the World… Vol. 2 London: G. and J. Robinson, 1798, p. 242-229.
A Critical Analysis of the Holy Qur'an
The Qur’an is the Islamic version of the Holy Bible. It is a divine book of Islam revealed by God to the Prophet Mohammed through angel Gabriel. The Book, according to the Islamic religion, brings peace and tranquility among people that adopt Islam as a system in their daily lives. It contains one hundred and fourteen chapters. In addition, it took about twenty years to reveal itself to the whole of humanity. Like the book of Genesis, the first Sura (chapter) of the Qur’an is Fatiah and the last chapter is Anaas. Using cross references, the Qur’an includes several biblical narratives from the Old Testament that relates to the creation of the world, the story of Mary (Sura 19), Noah and Abraham.
Even though it includes these biblical references, it is different from other religious texts because it dedicated a specific chapter (Sura 4) on women’s rights and obligations. It cites that women are entitled to “one quarter” of their husband’s property if he dies childless. In addition, it also provides women with a position of honor and respect, but considers them has weak-minded individuals. It cautions men not to trust women with property that God has given them to support women. For instance, in Sura 4, it clearly cites that men should not “…give the feeble-minded the property with which God has entrusted [them] for their support” (Sura 4). The phrase “feeble minded” implies that women should not be entrusted possibly with major power in society because they are soft minded. I suppose that this statement could possibly be a reaction to the Old Testament narrative about the incident that occurred in the Garden of Eden between Eve and the serpent.
Moreover, the Qur’an favors women less over men when it comes to property inheritance. It states that a man “shall inherit twice as much as a female” (Sura 4). This statement clearly shows the injustices to women because of the imbalance in property distribution. Women are also not treated equally when it comes to laws spelled out in the Qur’an regarding indecent act. For instance, the Qur’an states that women who are guilty of indecent behavior or “lewd act” should be put indoor until death overtakes them, but men should be pardoned because “God forgives those who commit evil acts in ignorance.” This implies that God only forgives men and not women. Scriptures in the Qur’an could serve as prove of how Muslim women are generally regarded in their society. Though it guarantees honor and respect to women, they are repressed by traditions of which men are most dominant.
1. Based on the statement that men should inherit more than women, do you think that is fair?
2. The Quran reference women as “feeble-minded” do you agree or disagree with this statement?
3. Based on the readings, what are some similarities between the Quran and the Book of Genesis?
Smith, Jane I. “Women in Islam: Equity, Equality, and the Search for the Natural Order.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec., 1979): pp. 517-537. JSTOR. Web. 11 Oct 2010.
Smith’s essay addresses the role of feminism in the Islamic culture with specific focus on equity and equality. A clear understanding about women’s role is spelled out in the Qur’an. It provides women a position of honor and respect with clearly stated rights and obligations. Smith argued that these stated rights and obligations restrict the roles of Muslim women in the Islamic society. According to the essay, “Predominant traditions of male authority and honor have made it difficult for women to avail themselves of the right guaranteed by the Qur’an,” (Smith). Other Muslim writers have made similar arguments about the female-male relationship in term of gender roles in the Islamic society.
1. Do you agree with Smith argument that traditions of male authority have made it difficult for women to press for their rights as stated in the Qur’an?
2. Do you think female roles in the Islamic culture have change? Why or why not?
Even though it includes these biblical references, it is different from other religious texts because it dedicated a specific chapter (Sura 4) on women’s rights and obligations. It cites that women are entitled to “one quarter” of their husband’s property if he dies childless. In addition, it also provides women with a position of honor and respect, but considers them has weak-minded individuals. It cautions men not to trust women with property that God has given them to support women. For instance, in Sura 4, it clearly cites that men should not “…give the feeble-minded the property with which God has entrusted [them] for their support” (Sura 4). The phrase “feeble minded” implies that women should not be entrusted possibly with major power in society because they are soft minded. I suppose that this statement could possibly be a reaction to the Old Testament narrative about the incident that occurred in the Garden of Eden between Eve and the serpent.
Moreover, the Qur’an favors women less over men when it comes to property inheritance. It states that a man “shall inherit twice as much as a female” (Sura 4). This statement clearly shows the injustices to women because of the imbalance in property distribution. Women are also not treated equally when it comes to laws spelled out in the Qur’an regarding indecent act. For instance, the Qur’an states that women who are guilty of indecent behavior or “lewd act” should be put indoor until death overtakes them, but men should be pardoned because “God forgives those who commit evil acts in ignorance.” This implies that God only forgives men and not women. Scriptures in the Qur’an could serve as prove of how Muslim women are generally regarded in their society. Though it guarantees honor and respect to women, they are repressed by traditions of which men are most dominant.
1. Based on the statement that men should inherit more than women, do you think that is fair?
2. The Quran reference women as “feeble-minded” do you agree or disagree with this statement?
3. Based on the readings, what are some similarities between the Quran and the Book of Genesis?
Smith, Jane I. “Women in Islam: Equity, Equality, and the Search for the Natural Order.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec., 1979): pp. 517-537. JSTOR. Web. 11 Oct 2010.
Smith’s essay addresses the role of feminism in the Islamic culture with specific focus on equity and equality. A clear understanding about women’s role is spelled out in the Qur’an. It provides women a position of honor and respect with clearly stated rights and obligations. Smith argued that these stated rights and obligations restrict the roles of Muslim women in the Islamic society. According to the essay, “Predominant traditions of male authority and honor have made it difficult for women to avail themselves of the right guaranteed by the Qur’an,” (Smith). Other Muslim writers have made similar arguments about the female-male relationship in term of gender roles in the Islamic society.
1. Do you agree with Smith argument that traditions of male authority have made it difficult for women to press for their rights as stated in the Qur’an?
2. Do you think female roles in the Islamic culture have change? Why or why not?
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)