The Impact of Smallpox Epidemics on the Native Americans and the Continental Army

Smallpox, which is still considered today by many historians and other medical practitioners as one of the world’s worst diseases ever in the history of mankind, killed approximately 30 percent of the Native American population on the
northwest coast of North America. The devastating consequence,
according to Robert Boyd, author of the book "The Coming of the Spirit
of Pestilence" was as a result of the first Native Americans’ direct
European contact. Boyed went on to say this incident was the “most
virulent of the deadly European diseases that swept over the region
during next 800 to 100 years” (Boyd 22-295). It is reported by some
historians that Europeans brought smallpox and other diseases to North
America during the early Columbian Exchange. Smallpox is a communicable
virus that travels from one infected individual to an unlucky victim
through close contact. A single infected individual within a gathering
can spread the virus among many that do not have an acquired immune
system to resist the virus. It is caused by a virus called Variola
major, closely related to monkey pox and cowpox. One who is affected by
smallpox sometimes experiences fever up to 105ºF, back pain as well as
influenza-like symptoms and vomiting. After three days, the fever
reduces and the rash starts to develop on the face, forearm, the hands
and other parts of the body. The infected individual will die or
survive; however, the possibility of surviving from this deadly disease
at the time was slim due to the lack of proper medication (Halverson
1-5). The lack of strong immune system and advanced medication to
prevent the virus during the great smallpox epidemic of 1775 and 1782,
led to the massive death of Native Americans and the Continental Army.
Native Americans were more susceptible to smallpox than the European
traders, who had brought the virus and other diseases such as measles
and other diseases on the North American Continent—historically
referred to as the New World. The natives had no acquired immune system
to resist the virus and as a result everyone was susceptible to it.
Because the virus needed a constant supply of unlucky victims to
survive, the natives consolidated lifestyle—commune living, or living
together as one family sharing food, water, clothing and other basic
life necessities, made it suitable for the virus to rapidly affect many
families and their friends. According to Elizabeth A. Fenn, author of
the book Pox Americana, smallpox eradicated over one hundred thousand
Native Americans. She maintains that each outbreak within a community
killed nearly half of the inhabitants and left others severely sick
(Fenn 13-43). For instance, an English fur trader, who spotted two
smallpox victims while entering through a harbor near Sitka, Alaska,
wrote “[He] observed the oldest of the men to be very much marked with
the small-pox, as was a girl who appeared to be about fourteen years
old. He further went on to say “The old man…told [him] that the
distemper carried off great numbers of the inhabitants, and that he
himself had lost ten children by it…”(Boyd 23-24). Native Americans
were naive about the virus. They had never encountered smallpox and as
a result, they had no knowledge on how to prevent the disease. The
effects of smallpox were outrageous. The Vancouver Expedition team, one
of the first European explorers, saw how people were badly affected by
the disease. Commander George Vancouver, one of the expedition team
members, saw one man who had suffered from smallpox and others who had
lost left eye sights from the disease, wrote “this deplorable disease
is not only common, but it is greatly to be apprehended is very fatal
amongst them, as its indelible marks were seen on many; and several had
lost the sight of one eye, which was remarked to be generally the left,
owing most likely to the virulent effects of this baneful disorder”
(Vancouver, Vol.2, p. 241-242). Europeans, however, had an acquired
immune system to resist the virus because they had been exposed to the
virus over a long period of time. Further, the lack of advanced
medication also plays a major role in the death of many Native
Americans. When an outbreak of the virus occurred, advanced medical
laboratories did not exist, like today, in any part North America to
produce vaccine that would have helped save the lives of thousands and
more Native Americans that were killed by the smallpox epidemic. In the
1770s, according to historian Robert Boyd, smallpox epidemics killed
more than 11,000 western Washington Indians, reducing the population
from about 37000 to 26000 (Boyd 22-295). Traditional native treatments
also worsen the mortality rates. For instance, Native Americans used
traditional native treatments, such as Sweet-lodges, which worsened
smallpox, to cure infected victims (Melissa 2). The lack of proper
medication and an acquired immune system made the natives more
susceptible to smallpox than the European.

The Continental Army was also greatly affected by smallpox throughout
the American Revolutionary war against the British. Acting as a
formidable force against the army, smallpox killed thousands of
soldiers and left many severely sick during the war. Military groupings
or encampments were gateways for smallpox to find its way through what
biologists called “virgin souls.” According to Fenn, smallpox started
its ravaging during the early start of the war---specifically during
the various sieges when people came in close contact with one another
seeking to find food, water, and other basic life necessities. Fenn
stated that the virus consistently and severely affected the American
troops throughout because they had soldiers that were more susceptible
to the virus than the British-born soldiers, who had been exposed to
the virus for centuries. General George Washington’s first year as a
commander in chief was chaotic for his men. Smallpox made landfall in
every camp that the troops resided in to await deployment and it even
attacked soldiers that were on the battlefield. At the Boston siege,
several hundred men were killed and others weakened before the British
attack. At some point, according to Fenn, smallpox killed most of the
soldiers, forcing the remaining sick men on the battlefield to retreat
leaving behind ammunition and other belongings. The high death rate
caused by smallpox became a major obstacle to the Continental troops’
success. In one of the battles before the arrival of General John
Thomas with more Continental reinforcement, smallpox had dropped the
army by six hundred men, leaving behind nineteen hundred, of which,
according to Fenn, nine hundred were sick including General Thomas
himself (Fenn 13-277). The devastating effect of smallpox on the
Continental troops was possibly due to unvaccinated men. Under George
Washington at the beginning of the war, he prohibited the practice of
inoculation for his men fearing that such process would weaken his
men—making them unready for combat. However, at one point, when
smallpox nearly killed all his men on the camp, he ordered that all of
them go through the inoculation process in order to reduce the
mortality rate and overcome the British. In his statement to inoculate
the troops when there was a smallpox outbreak on one of the camps on
January 1776, Washington wrote “We should have more to dread from
smallpox, than the sword of the enemy--- the time has come to inoculate
the troops” (Fenn 82). Although the Continental Army was severely
affected by the virus, some of the British new recruits were also
affected from the disease, but not to the extent that it affected the
Continental Army. New recruits, who were mainly blacks, in the British
Army were more susceptible to smallpox than the British-born soldiers.
However, smallpox was not a major obstacle for the British army,
possibly because the majority of the British troops—the main fighting
line, who were British born soldiers, had been exposed to the virus at
a younger age. Another significant reason the British troops were not
severely affected by smallpox, as opposed to the Continental troops,
was that inoculation was a mandatory requirement to join the main
British fighting line. Smallpox became an ally for the British troop
killing at least 50 to 100 Continental soldiers and leaving others
powerless before the actual combat. The Continental Army consisted of
many black soldiers that were more susceptible to smallpox. The British
also had black soldiers, but they were not included in the main
fighting line. Another possible reason why the Continental Army was
more susceptible to smallpox was the lack of good drinking water, food
and clothing and the winter season. For instance, the freezing winter
season might have also undermined the prevention process (Fenn 14-277).
To help reduce the mortality rates and prevent the virus among
inhabitants and returning combat soldiers, a controlling process was
put in place. Controlling smallpox posed a major task for the
Continental army. Some of the soldiers opposed the idea and others were
willing to go through the inoculation process. Although it was a
difficult task to inoculate the entire army, the process did go well
for Washington and the Continental soldiers. Fenn reported that the
Continental Army won their first battle right after the inoculation
took place. However, some of the soldiers had to pay for extra care due
to the lack of limited supply and resource. The popular demand for
inoculation within the military at that time triggered most of the
colonies to inoculate their inhabitants. Boston and Philadelphia
embraced the practice for its inhabitants to help prevent the
epidemics. However, only the rich in Philadelphia could afford the high
cost of inoculation. The needy, especially young children and older
adults had higher mortality rate due to low income. Through goodwill,
Benjamin Franklin and some of his friends founded a non-profit clinic
and helped the needy, young children and elderly adults to receive free
inoculation. The impact of smallpox on both troops and the Native
Americans was devastating. Many Native Americans, nearly half of the
population at the time, and Continental soldiers died from this disease
because of the lack of strong immune system to resist the deadly virus.
Some Native Americans lost their eye sight, mainly the left eye
according to the explorers, and likewise many of the soldiers were
unable to fight due to illness. The devastating effects of the smallpox
epidemic ruin many lives and it is still considered today as the worst
viruses in the history of mankind. Work Cited

Fenn, Elizabeth A. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of
1775-82. New York: Hill and Wnag, 2001. Print.

Halverson, Sue Melissa. “Native American Belief and Medical Treatments
During the Smallpox Epidemics: an Evolution. The Early America Review
online publication: 2007. p. 5-1.

Robert Boyd. “The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence.” Vancouver; BC:
Press, 1999. p. 295-22.

“Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest Coast of
North America in the 1770s.” History Linked.org: 30 April 2010.

Vancouver, George. A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific and Round
the World… Vol. 2 London: G. and J. Robinson, 1798, p. 242-229.

A Critical Analysis of the Holy Qur'an

The Qur’an is the Islamic version of the Holy Bible. It is a divine book of Islam revealed by God to the Prophet Mohammed through angel Gabriel. The Book, according to the Islamic religion, brings peace and tranquility among people that adopt Islam as a system in their daily lives. It contains one hundred and fourteen chapters. In addition, it took about twenty years to reveal itself to the whole of humanity. Like the book of Genesis, the first Sura (chapter) of the Qur’an is Fatiah and the last chapter is Anaas. Using cross references, the Qur’an includes several biblical narratives from the Old Testament that relates to the creation of the world, the story of Mary (Sura 19), Noah and Abraham.
Even though it includes these biblical references, it is different from other religious texts because it dedicated a specific chapter (Sura 4) on women’s rights and obligations. It cites that women are entitled to “one quarter” of their husband’s property if he dies childless. In addition, it also provides women with a position of honor and respect, but considers them has weak-minded individuals. It cautions men not to trust women with property that God has given them to support women. For instance, in Sura 4, it clearly cites that men should not “…give the feeble-minded the property with which God has entrusted [them] for their support” (Sura 4). The phrase “feeble minded” implies that women should not be entrusted possibly with major power in society because they are soft minded. I suppose that this statement could possibly be a reaction to the Old Testament narrative about the incident that occurred in the Garden of Eden between Eve and the serpent.
Moreover, the Qur’an favors women less over men when it comes to property inheritance. It states that a man “shall inherit twice as much as a female” (Sura 4). This statement clearly shows the injustices to women because of the imbalance in property distribution. Women are also not treated equally when it comes to laws spelled out in the Qur’an regarding indecent act. For instance, the Qur’an states that women who are guilty of indecent behavior or “lewd act” should be put indoor until death overtakes them, but men should be pardoned because “God forgives those who commit evil acts in ignorance.” This implies that God only forgives men and not women. Scriptures in the Qur’an could serve as prove of how Muslim women are generally regarded in their society. Though it guarantees honor and respect to women, they are repressed by traditions of which men are most dominant.
1. Based on the statement that men should inherit more than women, do you think that is fair?
2. The Quran reference women as “feeble-minded” do you agree or disagree with this statement?
3. Based on the readings, what are some similarities between the Quran and the Book of Genesis?


Smith, Jane I. “Women in Islam: Equity, Equality, and the Search for the Natural Order.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Dec., 1979): pp. 517-537. JSTOR. Web. 11 Oct 2010.


Smith’s essay addresses the role of feminism in the Islamic culture with specific focus on equity and equality. A clear understanding about women’s role is spelled out in the Qur’an. It provides women a position of honor and respect with clearly stated rights and obligations. Smith argued that these stated rights and obligations restrict the roles of Muslim women in the Islamic society. According to the essay, “Predominant traditions of male authority and honor have made it difficult for women to avail themselves of the right guaranteed by the Qur’an,” (Smith). Other Muslim writers have made similar arguments about the female-male relationship in term of gender roles in the Islamic society.
1. Do you agree with Smith argument that traditions of male authority have made it difficult for women to press for their rights as stated in the Qur’an?
2. Do you think female roles in the Islamic culture have change? Why or why not?